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Health is the level of
functional or metabolic efficiency of a living being. In
humans, it is the general condition of a person's mind, body
and spirit, usually meaning to be free from illness, injury or
pain (as in “good health” or “healthy”).[1] The World Health
Organization (WHO) defined health in its broader sense in 1946
as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social
well-being and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity."[2][3] Although this definition has been subject to
controversy, in particular as having a lack of operational
value and the problem created by use of the word "complete",
it remains the most enduring.[4][5] Classification systems
such as the WHO Family of International Classifications,
including the International Classification of Functioning,
Disability and Health (ICF) and the International
Classification of Diseases (ICD), are commonly used to define
and measure the components of health.
The maintenance and promotion of health is achieved through
different combination of physical, mental, and social
well-being, together sometimes referred to as the “health
triangle”.[6][7] The WHO's 1986 Ottawa Charter for Health
Promotion furthered that health is not just a state, but also
"a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living.
Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal
resources, as well as physical capacities."[8]
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Systematic activities to
prevent or cure health problems and promote good health
in humans are delivered by health care providers.
Applications with regard to animal health are covered by
the veterinary sciences. The term "healthy" is also
widely used in the context of many types of non-living
organizations and their impacts for the benefit of
humans, such as in the sense of healthy communities,
healthy cities or healthy environments. In addition to
health care interventions and a person's surroundings, a
number of other factors are known to influence the
health status of individuals, including their
background, lifestyle, and economic and social
conditions; these are referred to as "determinants of
health". |
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See also: Social determinants of
health and Risk factor
Generally, the context in which an individual lives is of
great importance on health status and quality of life. It is
increasingly recognized that health is maintained and improved
not only through the advancement and application of health
science, but also through the efforts and intelligent
lifestyle choices of the individual and society. According to
the World Health Organization, the main determinants of health
include the social and economic environment, the physical
environment, and the person's individual characteristics and
behaviors.[9]
More specifically, key factors that have been found to
influence whether people are healthy or unhealthy
include:[9][10][11]
Income and social status
Social support networks
Education and literacy
Employment/working conditions
Social environments
Physical environments
Personal health practices and coping skills
Healthy child development
Biology and genetics
Health care services
Gender
Culture
An increasing number of studies and reports from different
organizations and contexts examine the linkages between health
and different factors, including lifestyles, environments,
health care organization, and health policy - such as the 1974
Lalonde report from Canada;[11] the Alameda County Study in
California;[12] and the series of World Health Reports of the
World Health Organization, which focuses on global health
issues including access to health care and improving public
health outcomes, especially in developing countries.[13]
The concept of the "health field", as distinct from medical
care, emerged from the Lalonde report from Canada. The report
identified three interdependent fields as key determinants of
an individual's health. These are:[11]
Lifestyle: the aggregation of personal decisions (i.e. over
which the individual has control) that can be said to
contribute to, or cause, illness or death;
Environmental: all matters related to health external to the
human body, and over which the individual has little or no
control;
Biomedical: all aspects of health, physical and mental,
developed within the human body as influenced by genetic
make-up.
Focusing more on lifestyle issues and their relationships with
functional health, data from the Alameda County Study
suggested that people can improve their health via exercise,
enough sleep, maintaining a healthy body weight, limiting
alcohol use, and avoiding smoking.[12] The ability to adapt
and to self manage have been suggested as core components of
human health.[14]
The environment is often cited as an important factor
influencing the health status of individuals. This includes
characteristics of the natural environment, the built
environment, and the social environment. Factors such as clean
water and air, adequate housing, and safe communities and
roads all have been found to contribute to good health,
especially the health of infants and children.[9][15] Some
studies have shown that a lack of neighborhood recreational
spaces including natural environment leads to lower levels of
personal satisfaction and higher levels of obesity, linked to
lower overall health and well being.[16] This suggests the
positive health benefits of natural space in urban
neighborhoods should be taken into account in public policy
and land use.
Genetics, or inherited traits from parents, also play a role
in determining the health status of individuals and
populations. This can encompass both the predisposition to
certain diseases and health conditions, as well as the habits
and behaviors individuals develop through the lifestyle of
their families. For example, genetics may play a role in the
manner in which people cope with stress, either mental,
emotional or physical. (One difficulty in this is the debate
over the relative strengths of genetics and other factors;
interactions between genetics and environment may be of
particular importance.)
[edit]Maintaining health
Achieving and maintaining health is an ongoing process, shaped
by both the evolution of health care knowledge and practices,
as well as personal strategies and organized interventions for
staying healthy.
[edit]Role of science in health
Main articles: Health science and Health care
Health science is the branch of science focused on health.
There are two main approaches to health science: the study and
research of the body and health-related issues to understand
how humans (and animals) function; and the application of that
knowledge to improve health and to prevent and cure diseases
and other physical and mental impairments. The science builds
on many sub fields, including biology, biochemistry, physics,
epidemiology, pharmacology, medical sociology, and others.
Applied health sciences endeavor to better understand and
improve human health through applications in areas such as
health education, biomedical engineering, biotechnology and
public health.
Organized interventions to improve health based on the
principles and procedures developed through the health
sciences are delivered among practitioners trained in
medicine, nursing, nutrition, pharmacy, social work,
psychology, physical therapy and other health care
professions. Clinical practitioners focus mainly on the health
of individuals, while public health practitioners consider the
overall health of communities and populations. Workplace
wellness programs are increasingly adopted by companies for
their value in improving the health and well-being of their
employees, as are school health services to improve the health
and well-being of children. |
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History and nature: The
degree is currently awarded in various forms in institutions
in Australia, Bangladesh, Barbados, China, Egypt, Fiji, Ghana,
Guyana, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Ireland,
Jamaica, Jordan, Kenya, Kuwait, Libya, Malawi, Philippines,
Malaysia, Mauritius, Mexico, Myanmar, Nepal, New Zealand,
Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Saudi Arabia,
Sierra Leone, Singapore, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Sudan,
Tanzania, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, the United Arab
Emirates, the United Kingdom, Zambia and Zimbabwe.[1]
Historically, Bachelor of Medicine was also the primary
medical degree conferred by institutions in the United States
and Canada, such as University of Pennsylvania, Harvard,
University of Toronto, University of Maryland, and Columbia.
Several early North American medical schools were (for the
most part) founded by physicians and surgeons who had trained
in England and Scotland. University medical education in
England culminated with the Bachelor of Medicine
qualification, and in Scotland the Doctor of Medicine, until
the mid-19th century when the public bodies that regulated
medical practice at the time required practitioners in
Scotland as well as England to hold the dual Bachelor of
Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery degrees. Throughout the 19th
century, North American medical schools switched to the
tradition of the Ancient universities of Scotland and began
conferring Doctor of Medicine rather than Bachelor of
Medicine, the first institution to make such a switch being
King's College (now Columbia University) in New York.[2]
In the countries that award bachelors' degrees in medicine,
however, Doctor of Medicine denotes a holder of a higher
doctorate and is reserved for medical practitioners who
undertake research and submit a thesis in the field of
medicine. Nevertheless, those holding Bachelor of Medicine,
Bachelor of Surgery are usually referred to by the courtesy
title of "Doctor" and use the prefix "Dr".
Despite their styling as two degrees, Bachelor of Medicine and
Bachelor of Surgery are usually conferred together. At some
institutions, such as Oxford and Cambridge, it was possible in
the past to be awarded the two degrees in different
years.[citation needed]
In many countries, the degrees are awarded after an
undergraduate course lasting five or six years. In some cases,
a graduate in another discipline may subsequently enter a
special graduate-entry medical course, reduced in duration to
account for relevant material covered or learning skills
acquired during the first degree. In some cases the old first
year courses (for six year degrees) in the basic sciences of
physics, chemistry and biology have been abolished, and that
standard has to be reached by means of school examinations
before entry. However, in most countries a newly-graduated
Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery must spend a specified period
in internship before they can obtain full qualification as a
medical practitioner. |
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